Physical Examination of Dogs and Cats

🔎 Comprehensive Guide to the Physical Examination of Dogs and Cats

For Veterinary Practitioners and Clinical Review

✍️ Author: AllVetsLink Team

📅 Updated: August 2025

🔬 Introduction

The physical examination is the cornerstone of veterinary clinical practice. It enables the clinician to assess systemic health, identify early disease indicators, and determine the need for diagnostic testing. While the general approach is similar between dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) and cats (Felis catus), subtle species-specific differences in behavior, anatomy, and physiology must be considered to optimize examination technique and interpretation of findings.

🧭 General Approach

⚙️ Preparation

• Quiet, well-lit, stress-free environment.

• Use low-stress handling techniques.

• Allow cats to explore the room before handling if possible.

• Dogs may tolerate a more direct approach, but always assess demeanor first.

📋 Systematic Head-to-Tail Examination

1. Mentation and General Appearance

2. Vital Parameters

Note: Always evaluate in context—stress, handling, and temperature can elevate HR and RR, especially in cats.

3. Head and Neck

EYES

• Visual assessment, PLR, menace response, palpebral reflex, dazzle reflex.

• Evaluate for anisocoria, nystagmus, corneal clouding, conjunctival hyperemia, and discharge.

• Common abnormalities:

  • KCS (dogs): ↓ tear production, mucoid discharge.

  • Uveitis (cats): aqueous flare, miosis, hyphema.

EARS

• Examine pinnae, vertical & horizontal canal.

• Common in dogs: otitis externa, ear hematomas.

• Common in cats: mites (Otodectes) in young, ceruminous polyps.

NOSE

• Assess symmetry, airflow, discharge.

• Serous discharge may be normal.

• Mucopurulent, hemorrhagic, or unilateral discharge suggests pathology (e.g., fungal rhinitis, neoplasia).

MOUTH

• Assess mucous membranes, teeth, tongue, hard/soft palate.

• Dental disease is more prevalent and severe in small breed dogs and older cats.

• Look for ulcers (calicivirus, uremia), masses, gingivitis, fractured teeth, halitosis.

NECK

• Evaluate thyroid glands in cats (>6 y): enlargement = hyperthyroidism.

• Palpate trachea (sensitivity in tracheal collapse).

4. Thorax

AUSCULTATION (Lungs and Heart)

• Use quiet room, diaphragm & bell of stethoscope.

• Auscultate both sides: cranioventral, mid-thoracic, caudodorsal.

Heart Sounds:

Lung Sounds:

5. Abdomen

PALPATION

• Evaluate for pain, masses, organomegaly, fluid wave.

• Cats: kidneys often palpable; in dogs, kidneys are harder to feel unless enlarged.

• Assess bladder size, intestinal loops, gas distension.

ABDOMINAL PAIN:

• Guarding, vocalization, tensing.

• Differential: pancreatitis, GI foreign body, pyometra.

6. Urogenital and Perineal Region

• Evaluate external genitalia, mammary chains, prepuce/vulva.

• Prostatic palpation (rectally) in intact male dogs.

• Anal glands: impaction, expression, or abscesses.

• Perianal inspection: parasites, dermatitis, masses.

7. Integumentary and Lymphatic System

SKIN AND COAT

• Look for alopecia, erythema, crusts, parasites, masses.

• Common disorders: atopic dermatitis (dogs), flea allergy dermatitis, psychogenic alopecia (cats).

LYMPH NODES

• Mandibular, prescapular, axillary, inguinal, popliteal.

• Size, symmetry, pain, mobility evaluated.

8. Musculoskeletal System

• Observe gait, posture, weight bearing.

• Palpate long bones, joints (crepitus, instability).

• Common in dogs: CCL rupture, hip dysplasia, IVDD.

• Cats hide pain—look for subtle signs (↓jumping, grooming).

Systematic Palpation Approach

• Perform examinations with the animal standing if possible; a recumbent exam may follow for better access. Start distally and move proximally.

• Each region (digital, carpal/tarsal, joints, bones, muscles) should be palpated for effusion, pain, crepitus, heat, instability, range of motion (ROM) using the CREPI method (Crepitus, ROM, Effusion, Pain, Instability). 

• Spinal palpation for hyperesthesia and restricted motion is vital, assessing epaxial muscles and vertebrae—particularly cervical and lumbosacral segments.

Clinical Lameness Grading Scale (Small Animals – Primarily Dogs)

Clinical Context & Notes

• This ordinal scale (0–5) is frequently referenced in veterinary orthopaedics and clinical research. It enables tracking of lameness progression or response to treatments such as surgical repair or rehabilitation The Horse+8PMC+8cuvs.org+8.

• In clinical settings, a numerical rating system (e.g., 0–10 via Visual Analogue Scale) is sometimes used to refine subtle gradations of lameness, especially for low-grade cases docs.lib.purdue.edueverypaw.com.

• While these scales primarily apply to dogs, feline lameness is more subtle and may require careful observation — such as changes when a cat lifts a limb while sitting — although explicit feline grading scales are less established

Forelimb Examination

• Digits/Paws: Inspect for foreign bodies, pad lesions, pain, swelling; check tendons and joint stability. zoetisus.com+3Veterinary Medicine at Illinois+3vin.com+3

• Carpus (wrist): Test flexion, extension (normal ~30° flexion to 200° extension), valgus/varus, swelling, effusion, instability. vin.com

• Elbow & Antebrachium: Palpate for effusion, pain (especially over the medial coronoid), assess pronation/supination and ROM (~40–170°). vin.com+1

• Shoulder/Humerus: Evaluate muscle masses, assess ROM—flexion, extension, internal/external rotation; palpate biceps tendon for pain. Common issues: OCD, fractures, bicipital tenosynovitis. vetsurgeryonline.com

Pelvic Limb Examination

• Digits/Metatarsals: Similar approach as forelimb—check for swelling, fractures, instability. Veterinary Medicine at Illinois+2vetsurgeryonline.com+2

• Hock (tarsus): Examine ROM (normal ~40° flexion to 165° extension), effusion, collateral ligament stability. vin.com

• Tibia/Stifle: Palpate for effusion, patellar ligament, medial buttress, perform cranial drawer and tibial compression tests to assess cranial cruciate ligament integrity. vetsurgeryonline.com+1

• Femur/Hip/Pelvis: Palpate bony landmarks, full hip motion (flexion – 50°, extension – 160°), perform Ortolani sign for hip laxity; note symmetry to detect dysplasia or luxation.

Special Considerations in Cats

• Cats often mask pain—utilize owner videos, gentle handling, and sedation (e.g., dexmedetomidine/ketamine/butorphanol) when needed. VetGirl on the Run

• Orthopedic exam may be “mission impossible” due to temperament; sedation often enables full assessment. cabidigitallibrary.org+1

• Spinal palpation and limb manipulation should focus on detecting pain, swelling, or instability as cats may not exhibit overt lameness. Veterinary Medicine at Illinois+3PMC+3

9. Neurologic System

• Cranial nerve evaluation, proprioception, reflexes.

• Cats are harder to assess due to temperament—use food or toys for menace/palpebral testing.

• Watch for head tilt, ataxia, paresis, seizures.

10. Rectal Examination (Dogs)

• Assess prostate, urethra, anal tone, rectal mucosa, pelvic canal.

• Not routinely done in cats unless sedated.

🧠 Species-Specific Clinical Notes

• Cats: Stress-sensitive, prone to tachycardia, hyperthermia, and dynamic murmurs. Handle gently; allow time to acclimate.

• Dogs: Breed variations significant in vitals, body conformation, and disease predispositions.

📚 References and Further Reading

1. Ettinger SJ, Feldman EC. Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 8th ed. Elsevier, 2017.

2. King LG. Textbook of Respiratory Disease in Dogs and Cats. Saunders, 2004.

3. Thrall MA. Veterinary Hematology and Clinical Chemistry, 3rd ed. Wiley, 2022.

4. Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine – Clinical Skills ResourcesCornell Vet Clinical Skills

5. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice (Elsevier)https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/veterinary-clinics-of-north-america-small-animal-practice

6. VIN (Veterinary Information Network) – Membership requiredhttps://www.vin.com

Cardiac Acronyms:

🫀MMVD – Myxomatous Mitral Valve Disease

• Definition: A chronic, progressive degeneration of the mitral valve leaflets and chordae tendineae, leading to valvular insufficiency and left-sided volume overload.

• Species: Very common in small breed dogs (e.g., Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Dachshund).

• Key signs: Systolic murmur (left apex), cough, exercise intolerance, left atrial enlargement, pulmonary edema in CHF.

🫀 SAS – Subaortic Stenosis

• Definition: A congenital narrowing just below the aortic valve, causing left ventricular outflow obstruction.

• Species: Large breed dogs (e.g., Newfoundland, Golden Retriever).

• Key signs: Systolic ejection murmur (left base), weak femoral pulses, concentric left ventricular hypertrophy, risk of sudden death.

🫀 PDA – Patent Ductus Arteriosus

• Definition: A congenital cardiovascular anomaly where the fetal ductus arteriosus fails to close after birth, allowing left-to-right shunting of blood from the aorta to the pulmonary artery.

• Species: Most common congenital defect in dogs.

• Key signs: Continuous “machinery” murmur (left base), bounding pulses, left heart enlargement, pulmonary overcirculation, risk of CHF if untreated.

🫀 HCM – Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy

• Definition: A primary myocardial disease characterized by concentric hypertrophy of the left ventricle, leading to diastolic dysfunction.

• Species: Most common cardiac disease in cats.

• Key signs: Gallop rhythm, murmur, thromboembolism (saddle thrombus), dyspnea, sudden death.

🫀 SAM – Systolic Anterior Motion (of the mitral valve)

• Definition: Abnormal motion of the mitral valve leaflet into the left ventricular outflow tract during systole, obstructing outflow and causing mitral regurgitation.

• Species: Common in cats with HCM.

• Key signs: Murmur, dynamic LVOT obstruction, regurgitation, may be intermittent and influenced by stress or preload.

ROM refers to the degree of movement a joint can achieve in all its anatomical planes, typically flexion, extension, and, depending on the joint, abduction, adduction, rotation, or circumduction.